Spinoza (De Spinoza; Espinoza), Benedict

(1632-77)

   Dutch philosopher. He was born in Amsterdam. He had a traditional education, but his heretical views led to his excommunication in 1656. From 1660 he lived away from Amsterdam, earning his living as a lens polisher. His Theologico-Political Treatise initiated modern biblical criticism. In his Ethics he applied Euclidean methods to demon-strate a metaphysical concept of the universe with etical implications.